Why is the glycosidic bond of sucrose alpha,beta(1,2)?

The two-step strategy for determining the percentage composition of a compound include:  Calculating the molar mass of the compound and Calculating the percentage composition.

Calculate the molar mass of the compound
To determine the percentage composition of a compound, you must first calculate its molar mass. This is done by adding up the atomic masses of all the elements present in the compound. You can find the atomic masses of elements in the periodic table. For example, if your compound is H2O (water), the molar mass would be 2 x (mass of Hydrogen) + 1 x (mass of Oxygen) = 18.02 g/mol.

Calculate the percentage composition
Next, calculate the percentage composition of each element in the compound. Divide the total mass of the specific element by the molar mass of the compound, then multiply by 100 to get the percentage. For H2O, the percentage composition of Hydrogen is [(2 x mass of Hydrogen) / (molar mass of H2O)] x 100 = 11.19%. The percentage composition of Oxygen is [(1 x mass of Oxygen) / (molar mass of H2O)] x 100 = 88.81%.

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The explanation for hyperkalemia (high potassium) in this case is likely due to diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA).

The 7-year-old boy in the given case has fever, cough, and rhinorrhea for 1 week, lethargy for 3 days, and a past medical history of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM). His CMP (Comprehensive Metabolic Panel) shows decreased sodium (Na) and bicarbonate (HCO3) levels, and increased potassium (K), glucose (690), and BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen).

In this case the explanation for hyperkalemia (high potassium)  is likely due to diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). DKA is a complication of T1DM, characterized by hyperglycemia, ketosis, and metabolic acidosis. In DKA, the body cannot properly utilize glucose due to insulin deficiency, leading to a breakdown of fats for energy, which produces ketones.

The increased acidity from ketones causes a shift of potassium from inside cells to the bloodstream, leading to hyperkalemia. Additionally, the patient's reduced kidney function, indicated by the increased BUN, may also contribute to hyperkalemia as the kidneys are unable to efficiently excrete excess potassium.

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To identify the IR (infrared) spectrum of a compound and determine if it is benzoic acid or mandelic acid, you can follow these steps:

1. Obtain the infrared spectra of both benzoic acid and mandelic acid for comparison.

2. Analyze the key functional groups in each compound. Benzoic acid contains a carboxylic acid group, while mandelic acid has both a carboxylic acid group and an alcohol group.

3. Compare the IR spectrum of your unknown compound with the spectra of benzoic acid and mandelic acid.

4. Look for specific absorption bands that correspond to the functional groups. For example, the carboxylic acid group typically has a strong, broad absorption between 2500-3300 cm⁻¹ for O-H stretching and a sharp absorption at around 1700 cm⁻¹ for C=O stretching. The alcohol group in mandelic acid will also show a broad absorption in the range of 3200-3600 cm⁻¹ for O-H stretching.

5. Determine which reference spectrum your unknown compound's IR spectrum matches more closely. If the unknown spectrum exhibits only the carboxylic acid peaks, it is likely benzoic acid. If it shows both carboxylic acid and alcohol peaks, it is likely mandelic acid.

By following these steps, you can identify whether your unknown compound is benzoic acid or mandelic acid based on its IR spectrum.

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The properties of sodium are that Its density is greater than that of kerosene but less than that of water.

(a) This is a physical property because it refers to the mass per unit volume of sodium, which doesn't involve any chemical reactions or changes in its chemical structure.

b. It has a lower melting point than most metals.
This is a physical property because the melting point is the temperature at which a substance changes from solid to liquid, which doesn't involve any changes in its chemical composition.

c. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
This is a physical property because it refers to the ability of sodium to transfer heat and electrical charge, which doesn't involve any chemical changes.

d. It is soft and can be easily cut with a knife.
This is a physical property because it refers to the hardness and texture of sodium, which doesn't involve any changes in its chemical structure.

e. Freshly cut sodium rapidly tarnishes when exposed to air.
This is a chemical property because the tarnishing process involves a chemical reaction between sodium and oxygen in the air, which forms a new compound (sodium oxide).

f. Sodium reacts with water, releasing hydrogen gas (H₂) and heat.
This is a chemical property because the reaction between sodium and water changes the chemical composition of both substances, producing new compounds (sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas) and releasing heat.

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The level of the solvent system is too high. If the level of the solvent system in the chamber is above the spot when the plate is inserted, the compound from the spot will dissolve in the solvent instead of migrating up the plate. You may see irreproducible results if you reuse the solvent system for several TLCs.

When calcium hydroxide has a Ksp of 4.68 x 10⁻⁶, the number of moles of calcium hydroxide that will dissolve in 1 L of pure water is 1.05 × 10⁻² mol, the number of moles of calcium hydroxide that will dissolve in 1 L of 3. 25 M NaOH solution is 4.43 × 10⁻⁷ and the minimum concentration of sodium hydroxide is needed to precipitate calcium from a 0. 015 M solution of calcium chloride is 0.09 M.

(A)

Ksp of Ca(OH)₂ = 4.68 × 10⁻⁶

Ca(OH)₂ → Ca²⁺ + 2OH⁻

Ksp = [Ca²⁺] [OH⁻]²

⇒ Ksp = S × (2S)²

⇒ Ksp = 4S³

⇒ S = (Ksp/4)^1/3

⇒ S =  (4.68 × 10⁻⁶/4)^1/3

⇒ S = 0.0105 M

Mole of Ca(OH)₂ = Solubility × Volume

                           = 0.0105 M × 1L = 1.05 × 10⁻² mol

(B)

Ca(OH)₂ →  Ca²⁺ + 2OH⁻

Ksp = [Ca²⁺] [OH⁻]²

4.68 × 10⁻⁶ = S × (3.25)²

S = (4.68 × 10⁻⁶)/(3.25)² = 4.43 × 10⁻⁷ M

Mole of Cu(OH)₂ = Solubility × Volume

                           = 4.43 × 10⁻⁷ M × 1 L = 4.43 × 10⁻⁷ M

(C)

Ca(OH)₂ → Ca²⁺ + 2OH⁻

Ksp = [Ca²⁺] [OH⁻]²

4.68 × 10⁻⁶ = 0.015 × (2S)²

S = [4.68 × 10⁻⁶ / 0.015 × 4]^1/2

S = 8.83 × 10⁻³ M = 0.0883 M = 0.09 M

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When 4-ethoxyaniline reacts with acetic anhydride, the new functional group formed is an amide. The type of compound formed is called N-acetyl-4-ethoxyaniline.


4-Ethoxyaniline, which contains an amino group (-NH2), reacts with acetic anhydride. The acetic anhydride undergoes nucleophilic acyl substitution with the amino group.

The oxygen in the amino group attacks the carbonyl carbon of the acetic anhydride, breaking the carbonyl double bond and forming a tetrahedral intermediate. The intermediate collapses, reforming the carbonyl double bond and expelling the acetate ion.

The result is the formation of an amide functional group, specifically N-acetyl-4-ethoxyaniline.

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The formula for plumbous phosphate is C) PbPO4.

Plumbous phosphate is an ionic compound that contains one cation of lead (Pb²⁺) and one anion of phosphate (PO₄³⁻).

The formula unit of plumbous phosphate is PbPO₄, and it is commonly used in the production of ceramic materials, as a stabilizer for plastics, and as a component in some types of paints and coatings. Plumbous phosphate is a white or yellowish crystalline solid that is insoluble in water but soluble in acids.

Its melting point is 962°C, and it has a density of 6.8 g/cm³. The compound can be prepared by reacting lead nitrate (Pb(NO₃)₂) with sodium phosphate (Na₃PO₄) in a solution, and then filtering and drying the resulting precipitate.

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The metabolism of 28 grams of carbohydrates releases 112 kilocalories of energy.

There are 4 kilocalories of energy released per gram of carbohydrates metabolized. Therefore, to calculate the total energy released from the metabolism of 28 g of carbohydrates, we can simply multiply 28 g by 4 kcal/g, which equals 112 kilocalories.

It's important to note that not all carbohydrates are created equal in terms of their impact on energy release. Simple carbohydrates, such as those found in sugar and processed foods, can cause rapid spikes and crashes in blood sugar levels, leading to inconsistent energy levels throughout the day.

On the other hand, complex carbohydrates found in whole foods like fruits, vegetables, and whole grains are digested more slowly, leading to a more sustained release of energy over time.

Additionally, factors such as an individual's metabolic rate and level of physical activity can impact the amount of energy released from carbohydrate metabolism. Those with a faster metabolism or who engage in regular physical activity may burn through carbohydrates more quickly, leading to a greater overall release of energy.

Overall, while the specific amount of energy released from carbohydrate metabolism may vary based on individual factors and the specific type of carbohydrate being consumed, the general guideline of 4 kcal/g can be a helpful starting point for understanding the energy potential of this important macronutrient.

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When working with xylene, a highly flammable liquid with potential health hazards, it is important to take appropriate safety precautions.

These include wearing personal protective equipment, such as gloves, safety glasses, and lab coats, to prevent skin contact and inhalation of vapors. Xylene should be used in a well-ventilated area with proper ventilation systems to avoid excessive inhalation of fumes.

Smoking, open flames, and sparks should be avoided in the work area due to the flammability of xylene. Additionally, spills should be cleaned up immediately, and proper disposal methods for xylene and contaminated materials should be followed to prevent environmental damage.

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As you move from left to right across a period, the principle energy level of an atom remains the same. However, the nuclear charge increases due to the addition of protons in the nucleus, resulting in a greater positive charge.

This increased nuclear charge attracts electrons more strongly, causing them to be held more tightly to the nucleus. As a result, the atomic radius decreases across a period.

Additionally, as the valence electrons are added to the same outermost energy level, they experience greater electrostatic repulsion from each other, causing the shielding effect to remain constant and resulting in an increase in ionization energy and electronegativity.

Overall, the trend is that atoms become smaller and more reactive towards gaining electrons as you move from left to right across a period.

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The addition of a strong base like NaOH to a weak acid like HNO₂ can result in the formation of a buffer solution if the added base and the weak acid are present in nearly equal amounts.

In this case, the weak acid (HNO₂) reacts with the strong base (NaOH) to form its conjugate base (NO₂⁻) and water (H₂O).

The net ionic equation for the reaction between NaOH and HNO₂ can be written as follows:

HNO₂ + OH⁻ → NO₂⁻ + H₂O

The NO₂⁻ ion produced by this reaction acts as a weak base and can react with any additional H⁺ ions that might be introduced to the solution, thereby preventing significant changes in the pH of the solution. The presence of both the weak acid (HNO₂) and its conjugate base (NO₂⁻) in the solution allows the solution to resist changes in pH and act as a buffer.

In summary, the addition of NaOH to HNO₂ can result in the formation of a buffer solution due to the reaction between the weak acid and the strong base, which produces the weak base and its conjugate acid.

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The formation of salt crystals on a hot day by the Great Salt Lake is a physical change. This is because the process does not involve a chemical reaction that changes the composition of the salt. The heat simply causes the water to evaporate, leaving behind the salt crystals.

A physical property is a characteristic of a substance that can be observed or measured without changing the identity of the substance. Physical properties include color, density, hardness, and melting and boiling points. A chemical property describes the ability of a substance to undergo a specific chemical change.

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The nitrogen atom in the dimethylamino group of DMAP is more nucleophilic but less basic than the nitrogen atom in the pyridine ring.

DMAP (4-dimethylaminopyridine) is a molecule that contains two nitrogen atoms, one in the pyridine ring and the other in the dimethylamino group. Regarding nucleophilicity, the nitrogen atom in the dimethylamino group is more nucleophilic than the nitrogen atom in the pyridine ring. This is because the nitrogen atom in the dimethylamino group has a lone pair of electrons that is more exposed and less hindered by the neighboring atoms compared to the nitrogen atom in the pyridine ring, which is involved in pi-electron delocalization and therefore less available for nucleophilic attack.

On the other hand, both nitrogen atoms can act as bases since they can accept a proton. However, the nitrogen atom in the pyridine ring is more basic than the nitrogen atom in the dimethylamino group. This is because the nitrogen atom in the pyridine ring is part of an aromatic system, which makes it more electron-rich and therefore more likely to attract a proton compared to the nitrogen atom in the dimethylamino group.

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The relative reactivity of carbons in a C=O (carbonyl) bond and a C=N (imine) bond can be understood based on the electronic properties of the two functional groups.

In a C=O bond, the carbon atom is electron-deficient due to the strong electronegativity of the oxygen atom, which attracts electrons away from the carbon.

This electron-deficiency makes the carbon in a C=O bond relatively electrophilic, meaning it is prone to attack by nucleophiles.

In contrast, in a C=N bond, the carbon atom is less electron-deficient than in a C=O bond because nitrogen is less electronegative than oxygen. As a result, the carbon in a C=N bond is relatively less electrophilic than in a C=O bond.

Therefore, in general, carbonyl compounds (C=O) are more reactive than imines (C=N) towards nucleophilic attack due to the greater electrophilicity of the carbonyl carbon.

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The initial ratio of [tex]HPO_4^{2-}[/tex] to [tex]H_2PO_4[/tex] in the buffer solution is 100:1.

Answer: c) 100:1

The pH of the buffer solution is 8.7, which is higher than the pKa of the [tex]H_2PO_4/HPO_4^{2-}[/tex] system (pKa = 6.7). This means that the buffer solution is in the basic range and the majority of the phosphate groups will be in the deprotonated form of [tex]HPO_4^{2-}[/tex].

To calculate the ratio of [tex]HPO_4^{2-}[/tex] to [tex]H_2PO_4[/tex]in the buffer solution, we can use the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:

[tex]pH = pKa + log([HPO_4^{2-}]/[H_2PO_4])[/tex]

Rearranging this equation gives:

[[tex]HPO_4^{2-}[/tex]]/[[tex]H_2PO_4[/tex]] = [tex]10^{(pH - pKa)[/tex]

Substituting the given values, we get:

[[tex]HPO_4^{2-}[/tex]]/[[tex]H_2PO_4[/tex]= [tex]10^{(8.7 - 6.7)}[/tex] = 100

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The vapor pressure of acetic acid is 80.6 mm Hg. The correct option is D.

To calculate the vapor pressure at another temperature, the Clausius-Clapeyron equation can be used wherein

P is the vapor pressure,

ΔH is the enthalpy of vaporization,

 R is the ideal gas constant, and

T is the temperature.The formula of Clapeyron equation is:[tex]\frac{P_2}{P_1} =\rm{exp[\frac{-H}{R} (\frac{1}{T_2} -\frac{1}{T_1} )][/tex]

The given values are:P₁=760 mm Hg

,T₁=118°C=118+273.15=391.15 K,

T₂=30°C=30+273.15=303.15 K.

Substitution of values in equation gives,[tex]P_2=760 exp[\dfrac{-234}{8.314} (\dfrac{1}{303.15} -\dfrac{1}{391.15)} \\=80.6\ mmHg[/tex]

Thus,  vapor pressure of acetic acid is 80.6 mm Hg.The correct option is D.

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A competitive inhibitor is a type of enzyme inhibitor that binds to the active site of the enzyme and competes with the substrate for binding.

As a result, the competitive inhibitor can increase the apparent Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) of the enzyme.

Km is a measure of the affinity of the enzyme for its substrate. A higher value of Km indicates a lower affinity of the enzyme for the substrate, which means that the enzyme requires a higher concentration of the substrate to reach half of its maximum reaction rate (Vmax).

When a competitive inhibitor is present, it decreases the affinity of the enzyme for its substrate by occupying the active site and preventing the substrate from binding.

This means that a higher concentration of the substrate is required to overcome the inhibition caused by the competitive inhibitor, which leads to an increase in the apparent Km.

In other words, a competitive inhibitor increases the Km because it makes it more difficult for the substrate to bind to the enzyme.

The effect of the competitive inhibitor on Vmax depends on the concentration of the inhibitor relative to the concentration of the substrate.

If the concentration of the inhibitor is high enough to completely saturate the active site, it can decrease the Vmax by preventing the substrate from binding to the enzyme.

However, if the concentration of the inhibitor is low, the effect on Vmax may be minimal, as the substrate can still bind to the enzyme and reach the maximum reaction rate.

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Of the solutions tested in the lab (DI water, 0.9% saline, 0.9% bicarbonate, 2% saline, tea/water), the group that should have had the highest volume of urine eliminated is the one with DI water.

The reason is that DI (deionized) water has the lowest concentration of solutes among the solutions, which means that it has the highest water content. When the body takes in DI water, it does not need to retain as much water to maintain its internal osmotic balance, resulting in a higher volume of urine being produced and eliminated.

The other solutions contain higher concentrations of solutes, requiring the body to retain more water to maintain balance, thus producing less urine.

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The renal system regulates the extracellular fluid (ECF) concentration of H+ in three ways:

1. Increasing H+ secretion: The renal system can increase the secretion of H+ ions in the nephron's tubules, which helps remove excess H+ from the ECF and maintain the acid-base balance.

2. Increasing HCO3- reabsorption: The renal system can increase the reabsorption of bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) in the tubules, which helps buffer the H+ ions in the ECF and prevent acidosis.

3. Producing new HCO3-: The renal system can generate new bicarbonate ions through ammonia and titratable acid excretion. Ammonia (NH3) combines with H+ ions to form ammonium ions (NH4+), while titratable acids (like phosphates) can bind with H+ ions.

Both processes help eliminate H+ ions from the body, allowing for the formation of new HCO3- ions to maintain acid-base balance.

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The correct answer is C) CH3CH2NH2. This molecule is an amine because it contains a nitrogen atom (N) directly bonded to an alkyl group (CH3CH2).

This molecule is an amine because it contains a nitrogen atom (N) directly bonded to an alkyl group (CH3CH2). Specifically, the nitrogen atom is bonded to two hydrogen atoms and one ethyl group (CH3CH2), which makes it a primary amine.

Amines are organic compounds that contain a nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons. They are classified based on the number of alkyl groups or hydrogen atoms bonded to the nitrogen atom.

Primary amines have one alkyl group or hydrogen atom bonded to the nitrogen, secondary amines have two, and tertiary amines have three.

In this case, the nitrogen atom in CH3CH2NH2 is only bonded to one ethyl group and two hydrogen atoms, so it is a primary amine. Amines have a variety of applications, including as building blocks for pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and dyes.

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At equilibrium, the thermodynamically favored process depends on the relative magnitudes of the Gibbs free energy changes for dissolution and precipitation.

At equilibrium, the thermodynamically favored process depends on the relative magnitudes of the Gibbs free energy changes (ΔG) for dissolution and precipitation. The process with the lower value of ΔG is favored at equilibrium. If the value of ΔG for dissolution is negative, it means that the process releases energy and is therefore thermodynamically favored at equilibrium.

On the other hand, if the value of ΔG for precipitation is negative, it means that the process gains energy and is therefore thermodynamically favored at equilibrium. Thus, whether dissolution or precipitation is favored depends on the specific chemical system and the conditions under which it is operating.

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To determine the amount of chlorine gas needed to make a certain amount of sodium chloride, we need to use stoichiometry and the balanced equation for the reaction.

According to the equation, 2 moles of sodium react with 1 mole of chlorine gas to produce 2 moles of sodium chloride. Therefore, for every mole of sodium chloride produced, we need half a mole of chlorine gas.

Since we want to make 0.6 moles of sodium chloride, we need half that amount, or 0.3 moles of chlorine gas. Thus, the correct answer is B) 0.3.

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To estimate the pKa for a weak acid and strong base titration, one can use the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.

The equation relates the pH of a solution to the pKa of the weak acid and the ratio of the concentrations of the weak acid and its conjugate base.

By measuring the pH of the solution at the halfway point of the titration, where the concentrations of the weak acid and its conjugate base are equal, one can calculate the pKa of the weak acid using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.

The pKa is equal to the pH plus the logarithm of the ratio of the concentrations of the weak acid and its conjugate base.

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The total volume of the 0.28 M glucose solution made using 100 g of glucose would be 1.25 L.

To calculate the volume of the solution, we need to first determine the number of moles of glucose present in 100 g of glucose:

Mass of glucose = 100 g

Molar mass of glucose (C6H12O6) = 6(12.01 g/mol) + 12(1.01 g/mol) + 6(16.00 g/mol) = 180.18 g/mol

Number of moles of glucose = Mass of glucose / Molar mass of glucose = 100 g / 180.18 g/mol = 0.555 mol

Now, we can use the formula for the concentration of a solution:

Molarity (M) = Number of moles / Volume (L)

Rearranging the formula, we get:

Volume (L) = Number of moles / Molarity (M)

Substituting the values given in the question, we get:

Volume (L) = 0.555 mol / 0.28 mol/L = 1.98 L

Therefore, the total volume would be 1.98 L.

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The bomb category that is not suitable for target penetration is the airburst bomb.

Airburst bombs are designed to detonate in the air, creating a large blast wave and damaging a wide area rather than penetrating a specific target. These bombs are commonly used to attack ground targets such as enemy troops, vehicles, or buildings.

When detonated, the airburst bomb releases a large amount of energy in a short amount of time, creating a shock wave that can cause significant damage to the target area.

However, the bomb does not penetrate the target directly, making it less effective against hardened targets such as bunkers or underground structures. In contrast, penetrator bombs are designed to penetrate the target before detonating, maximizing the damage to the target and minimizing collateral damage to the surrounding area. Therefore, the choice of bomb type depends on the specific target and the desired outcome of the attack.

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First and foremost thing while working with sodium borohydride is to wear PROTECTIVE GLOVES and CLOTHING.

Avoid skin contact, wash hands immediately after handing sodium borohydride, if inhaled move person into fresh air.

A 44% recovery of benzoic acid could be due to incomplete extraction, loss during evaporation or filtration, impure starting material, or measurement errors.

The possible explanations for this result could include:

1. Incomplete extraction: During the extraction process, not all benzoic acid might have been successfully transferred from the original solution to the new one, resulting in a lower recovery rate.

2. Loss during evaporation or filtration: Some benzoic acid could have been lost while evaporating the solvent or during the filtration process, leading to a lower percentage of the recovery.

3. Impure starting material: The initial sample of benzoic acid might have contained impurities, which could have affected the recovery process and resulted in a lower percentage.

4. Measurement errors: There could be errors in the initial and final mass measurements, leading to an inaccurate calculation of the percent recovery of benzoic acid.

In conclusion, a 44% recovery of benzoic acid could be due to incomplete extraction, loss during evaporation or filtration, impure starting material, or measurement errors.

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The order of decreasing atomic radius is: Ar > S > Cl > P.

Atomic radius is the distance between the nucleus and the outermost electrons of an atom. It tends to decrease from left to right across a period and increase from top to bottom within a group on the periodic table.

Ar (argon) is a noble gas and has the largest atomic radius among the given elements because it has a completely filled outermost shell of electrons, which shields the nuclear charge effectively.

S (sulfur) has a larger atomic radius than Cl (chlorine) and P (phosphorus) because it is in the third period of the periodic table, which means it has more energy levels and a larger atomic size.

Cl has a smaller atomic radius than S because it has a higher effective nuclear charge due to its greater number of protons, which attracts the outermost electrons more strongly, thereby decreasing the atomic radius.

Finally, P has the smallest atomic radius because it is smaller in size than both S and Cl, with fewer energy levels and a greater effective nuclear charge.

Therefore, the order of decreasing atomic radius is Ar > S > Cl > P.

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The chemical formula for the iodite ion is C) IO2-.

The iodite ion, or iodine dioxide anion, is the halite with the chemical formula IO−2. Within the ion the Iodine exists in the oxidation state of +3. Iodites (including iodous acid) are highly unstable and have been observed but never isolated. They will rapidly disproportionate to molecular Iodine and Iodates.  However, they have been detected as intermediates in the conversion between iodide and iodate.

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