The enzyme Carbonic Anhydrase (CA) is present in red blood cells and is responsible for increasing the rate of reaction between water and carbon dioxide.
This reaction is necessary for the maintenance of proper pH balance in the body. CA helps to catalyze the reaction between CO2 and H2O to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). It also helps to accelerate the breakdown of carbonic acid into bicarbonate (HCO3-) and protons (H+).
This reaction is important for maintaining proper pH balance as bicarbonate is an important buffer in the blood. It also helps to regulate the pH of the digestive system and helps to increase the rate of other metabolic reactions.
In conclusion, Carbonic Anhydrase is an essential enzyme in red blood cells that increases the rate of reaction between water and carbon dioxide, and is important for the maintenance of proper pH balance in the body.
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Enzymes are essential molecules that work hard to facilitate chemical reactions, including during DNA replication. Name TWO different enzymes that aid in DNA replication, and what their main FUNCTION is in the overall process.
Two enzymes which participate in the process of DNA replication are the helicase and the DNA polymerase.
Replication is the process by which the DNA basically doubles its content and a number of different enzymes participate in this process. Helicase is an enzyme which is responsible for opening up the double stranded DNA so that the replication can take place.
The DNA polymerase is a very crucial enzyme as it is responsible for the elongation. The DNA polymerase is basically thermo-stable and can function at very high temperatures. The DNA polymerase is not only involved in the elongation but also in the proof reading.
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Proton Potential (^p) is made up of what two components?
The proton potential(p) through the membrane of the inner mitochondria is composed of two elements: the membrane potential and proton concentration gradient (pH).
The energy required to move a charge under an electric field is referred to as electric potential energy. A charge requires more energy to move deeper in the electric field, but it also requires more energy to pass through an increasingly powerful electric field.
For example, if a proton is propelled from rest by a potential difference of more than 30 kV, it gains 30 keV (30,000 eV) of energy and can break up to 6000 molecules (30,000 eV x 5 eV per molecule = 6000 molecules).
The variance in electrical potential at two points represents the work or energy released in the passage of a specific amount of electricity from one point to the other.
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Describe data that indicates significant ecological effects of global warning in plants and animal distributions.
Global warming significantly affects plant and animal distributions through range shifts, phenological changes, and altered species interactions, leading to ecological disruptions and challenges for biodiversity conservation.
Global warming has significant ecological effects on plant and animal distributions, as seen through the following key indicators: range shifts, phenological changes, and species interactions.
Range shifts occur as species move to higher elevations and latitudes to adapt to warmer temperatures, leading to altered distributions. For example, the Edith's checkerspot butterfly has shifted its range northward, while some alpine plant species have experienced range contractions.
Phenological changes refer to shifts in the timing of life-cycle events, such as flowering or breeding. Warmer temperatures lead to earlier onset of these events, causing disruptions in ecosystem synchrony. For instance, the earlier arrival of spring has impacted the breeding cycles of birds, such as the pied flycatcher, which now struggle to match their breeding with the peak abundance of their caterpillar prey.
Species interactions, including predator-prey dynamics and competitive relationships, are also affected. The earlier melting of Arctic sea ice has altered the hunting patterns of polar bears, causing nutritional stress as their primary prey, seals, become harder to access.
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The part of a mitochondrion that is analogous to the stroma of a chloroplast is thea. grana.b. inner membrane.c. thylakoids.d. matrix.e. outer membrane.
The part of a mitochondrion that is analogous to the stroma of a chloroplast is the Mitochondrial Matrix.
D is the correct answer.
A viscous fluid called a mitochondrial matrix is made up of organic molecules, nucleotide cofactors, mitochondrial DNA, ribosomes, inorganic ions, and enzymes.
The tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle), an enzymatic set of events started by the conversion of pyruvate and fatty acids to acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), takes place in the mitochondrial matrix. Membrane-bound permeases move pyruvate and fatty acids from the cytoplasm into mitochondria.
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: Level I: Reviewing Facts and Terms (Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension)
44) The principal ions in the ECF are ________.
The principal ions in the extracellular fluid (ECF) are Na⁺ (sodium) and Cl⁻ (chloride).
These ions are predominantly found outside of the cell and are important in maintaining osmotic pressure, fluid balance, and nerve and muscle function.
Sodium is the most abundant cation in the ECF and plays a critical role in regulating water balance and blood pressure. Chloride is the major anion in the ECF and helps maintain the electrical neutrality of the body fluids.
Other ions, such as bicarbonate (HCO³⁻) and calcium (Ca²⁺), also play important roles in the ECF, but in smaller concentrations. Imbalances in the concentrations of these ions, such as hyponatremia (low sodium) or hypercalcemia (high calcium), can lead to serious health consequences and should be monitored closely.
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imagine that the sar1 protein was mutated so that it could not hydrolyze gtp, regardless of its binding partners. when bound to gtp upon interaction with a sar1 gef on the er membrane, would the mutant sar1 direct proper assembly of copii-coated vesicles? would these copii coats, if formed, then disassemble normally? choose one: a. copii coats would not assemble or disassemble properly. b. copii coats would assemble properly but not disassemble. c. copii coats would assemble and disassemble normally. d. copii coats would not assemble but would disassemble.
The SAR1 protein, when mutated so that it cannot hydrolyze GTP, would not be able to direct proper assembly of COPII-coated vesicles. Therefore, option d. the COPII coats would not assemble but would disassemble is the correct answer.
The COPII-coated vesicles are put together by the SAR1 protein, a GTPase.
To start the assembly procedure, it binds to GTP and engages with a SAR1 GEF on the ER membrane.
Due to the SAR1's mutation, which prohibits it from hydrolyzing GTP, COPII-coated vesicles cannot be assembled since it is unable to engage with the GEF or bind to GTP.
The vesicles are unable to disintegrate normally without the assembly of the COPII coatings.
Complete Question:
Imagine that the SAR1 protein was mutated so that it could not hydrolyze GTP, regardless of its binding partners. When bound to GTP upon interaction with a SAR1 GEF on the ER membrane, would the mutant SAR1 direct proper assembly of COPII-coated vesicles? Would these COPII coats, if formed, then disassemble normally?
a. COPII coats would not assemble or disassemble properly.
b. COPII coats would not assemble but would disassemble.
c. COPII coats would assemble and disassemble normally.
d. COPII coats would not assemble but would disassemble.
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What about using nuclear transplantation for therapeutic cloning?
Nuclear transplantation, also known as somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), can be used for therapeutic cloning.
Therapeutic cloning involves creating a cloned embryo from a patient's own cells, which can then be used to generate specialized cells and tissues that are a genetic match to the patient. These specialized cells and tissues can be used for transplantation and regenerative medicine, potentially allowing for the treatment of a wide range of diseases and injuries.
The process of nuclear transplantation involves removing the nucleus of an egg cell and replacing it with the nucleus from a somatic cell (a non-reproductive cell such as a skin cell). The resulting cell, known as a somatic cell nuclear transfer embryo, is then stimulated to divide and develop into an embryo.
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true/false. Animal allergens can only infect workers through inhalation, or breathing in small airborne particles
FALSE
The statement “Animal allergens can only infect workers through inhalation, or breathing in small airborne particles” is false because animal allergens can also cause allergic reactions through skin contact, and ingestion of contaminated food or water.
Animal allergens are proteins found in the skin, hair, saliva, urine, and feces of animals such as cats, dogs, mice, and rabbits. Workers who handle or work in close proximity to these animals may be at risk of developing allergies, asthma, or other respiratory diseases.
However, exposure to animal allergens can also occur through skin contact, such as touching an animal or handling contaminated materials like bedding or cages. Ingestion of contaminated food or water can also lead to exposure, as can injection via insect bites or stings from insects that have been in contact with animal allergens, the statement is false.
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a stem cell is fate determined once it has received the self renewal (sr) signal. as result of activation of the sr pathway, which genes are newly expressed? (check all that apply) id genes diff (skin) genes diff (neural) genes div genes det genes sr genes
Stem cell fate is determined by the self-renewal (SR) signal, which is triggered upon the activation of the SR pathway.
Upon activation of the SR pathway, several genes are newly expressed, including differentiation (Diff) genes, division (Div) genes, determination (Det) genes, and SR genes.
Diff genes are responsible for the differentiation of stem cells into specialized cells, such as skin and neural cells, while Div genes are responsible for stem cell division. Det genes are responsible for maintaining stem cell characteristics, and SR genes are responsible for self-renewal.
Altogether, these newly-expressed genes regulate stem cell fate and ensure the proper functioning of the organism.
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Whiplash- impact may result in bony or soft-tissue injuries, known as ________ _______ --> which, in turn may lead to a variety of clinical manifestations, known as _________ __________ __________
Whiplash impact may result in bony or soft-tissue injuries, known as cervical sprain or strain which, in turn may lead to a variety of clinical manifestations, known as whiplash-associated disorders.
These injuries can occur when sudden acceleration-deceleration forces cause rapid movement of the neck, usually as a result of a car accident or contact sports. Cervical sprain or strain can lead to a variety of clinical manifestations, known as whiplash-associated disorders.
Whiplash-associated disorders include a range of symptoms such as neck pain, stiffness, and limited range of motion. Other symptoms may involve headaches, dizziness, fatigue, jaw pain, and memory problems. These symptoms can vary in intensity and duration, with some individuals recovering quickly, while others may experience long-term or chronic issues.
It is essential to seek medical evaluation and appropriate treatment for whiplash-associated disorders. Treatment may involve pain management, physical therapy, and rehabilitation exercises to promote healing and restore function. Early intervention can significantly improve recovery outcomes and prevent further complications from arising. In summary, whiplash injuries such as cervical sprain or strain can lead to various clinical manifestations known as whiplash-associated disorders, and it is crucial to address these issues promptly and effectively.
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genotype is . group of answer choices the manner in which a particular trait is expressed an individual's actual genetic makeup the diploid number of chromosomes in an individual
Genotype refers to an individual's actual genetic makeup, which is determined by the specific combination of alleles (different forms of a gene) inherited from their parents.
These alleles may be dominant, recessive, or co-dominant, and can influence how a particular trait is expressed in an organism. The genotype of an individual determines which traits they are capable of passing on to their offspring, and can also determine their susceptibility to certain genetic disorders. In contrast, the expression of a trait is known as its phenotype, which is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.
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All non-African humans today show evidence of a limited amount of past interbreeding with ________.
Answer:
Neanderthals
Explanation:
All non-African humans today show evidence of a limited amount of past interbreeding with Neanderthals. DNA studies have shown that non-African humans have slight amounts of Neanderthal DNA, suggesting that there was interbreeding between early Homo sapiens that migrated out of Africa and Neanderthals, who were present in Europe and Asia at that time.
How do you prevent decubital sores and muscle damage in the down llama?
Taking care of a llama can be a rewarding experience, but it also requires responsible handling and regular maintenance. To ensure the health and well-being of a down llama, it is important to take steps to prevent decubital sores and muscle damage.
Ensure the llama is provided with a comfortable bedding or padding that is changed regularly.Ensure the llama is able to move around as much as possible and is not confined to one position for extended periods of time.Provide regular grooming and massage to help relax muscles and encourage good circulation.Ensure the llama is provided with appropriate exercise and activity to keep their muscles strong and supple.Provide regular veterinary care to check for any signs of decubital sores or muscle damage.Make sure the llama is provided with a balanced diet to ensure it is receiving all the necessary nutrients.Learn more about veterinary at: https://brainly.com/question/16956155
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What are 2 factors that tend to affect the number of species on an island?
Two factors that tend to affect the number of species on an island are the island's size and its distance from other land masses.
Due to its increased acreage, diversity of habitats, and resources, a larger island can host more species.
A greater diversity of organisms have more chances to colonise and thrive in the habitat on larger islands. The number of species that live on an island can also depend on how far it is from other land masses.
An island may not have access to the same kind of plants and animals that are found on the mainland if it is located far from other land masses. The number of species that can colonise the island may be constrained by this lack of access.
On the other hand, species from the mainland might be able to get to an island if it is adjacent to other land masses, and colonize it, increasing the number of species that inhabit the island.
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which of the following represents a major challenge for accurately defining the phylogeny of archaea? choose one: a. current methods are largely ineffective for extracting dna from archaea. b. many archaeal genomes show evidence of extensive horizontal gene transfer. c. too few archaeal taxa have been described to generate precise phylogenetic trees. d. they lack the 16s rrna genes that are traditionally used for such analyses. e. most archaea require specialized anaerobic chambers for laboratory culture.
The major challenge for accurately defining the phylogeny of archaea is that many archaeal genomes show evidence of extensive horizontal gene transfer. The right option is, B.
The major challenge for accurately defining the phylogeny of archaea is the extensive horizontal gene transfer exhibited by many archaeal genomes.
Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material between organisms that are not parent and offspring, and it can make it difficult to accurately trace the evolutionary history of a group of organisms.
This is because it can lead to the presence of genes in an organism that did not evolve from that organism's ancestors, but rather was acquired through horizontal transfer.
This can result in phylogenetic trees that are inaccurate or misleading.
While other factors such as difficulties in extracting DNA or limited taxonomic descriptions may pose challenges as well, horizontal gene transfer is the most significant challenge when it comes to accurately define the phylogeny of archaea.
Therefore, the right option is B, many archaeal genomes show evidence of extensive horizontal gene transfer.
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Are pts in an Addisonian Crisis hyper/hypoglycemic?
Patients in an Addisonian Crisis are generally hypoglycemic which means they have low blood sugar levels. This is because of the adrenal glands.
Addison's disease is a condition where the adrenal glands do not produce enough cortisol and aldosterone hormones. During an Addisonian crisis, which is a life-threatening complication of Addison's disease, the body experiences a sudden drop in these hormones.
This leads to a decrease in glucose production and an increase in glucose utilization, which can result in hypoglycemia. In severe cases, hypoglycemia can cause confusion, seizures, and loss of consciousness.
Thus, patients in an Addisonian Crisis are hypoglycemic.
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a flower with 10 petals reproduces with a flower that has 6 petals. the offspring each have 8 petals. which of the theories of inheritance would best describe this type of outcome?
The theory of inheritance that would best describe this type of outcome is the blending inheritance theory.
This theory suggests that offspring inherit a blend of traits from their parents, resulting in intermediate characteristics. In this case, the number of petals in the offspring is a blend of the number of petals in the parent flowers, resulting in 8 petals.
However, it's important to note that this theory has been largely discredited in modern genetics, as it doesn't account for the complexity of genetic inheritance. Instead, the theory of particulate inheritance, which involves the passing down of discrete units of genetic information called genes, is now widely accepted.
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What happens to the readings when the laser is a similar color to the solution in the cuvette?
When the laser used in a spectrophotometer is of a similar color to the solution in the cuvette, the readings will be affected, resulting in inaccurate measurements.
This is because the spectrophotometer measures the absorption of light by the sample, and if the laser and the solution have a similar color, the light may be absorbed by both, resulting in interference and inaccurate readings.
To obtain accurate readings in such cases, it is essential to use a laser of a different color or wavelength than the solution being measured. This ensures that the light is absorbed only by the solution, and the readings obtained are precise and reliable.
Overall, it is crucial to ensure that the light source used in spectrophotometry is appropriate for the solution being measured to obtain accurate results.
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electrons do not travel to _____ in cyclic photophosphorylation, so _____ is not produced
Electrons do not travel to NADP+ in cyclic photophosphorylation, so NADPH is not produced.
During cyclic photophosphorylation, the electrons from the electron transport chain of the photosystem I (PSI) are cycled back to the same PSI complex, instead of being passed to NADP+ as in non-cyclic photophosphorylation. This cyclic flow of electrons generates ATP through chemiosmosis, but does not result in the production of NADPH, which is an important reducing agent used in the Calvin cycle for carbon fixation during photosynthesis. Therefore, in cyclic photophosphorylation, NADPH is not produced as the electrons do not travel to NADP+.
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: Level II: Reviewing Concepts (Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension)
63) Dan has been lost in the desert for two days with very little water. As a result, you would expect to observe
A) elevated ADH levels.
B) decreased blood osmolarity.
C) normal urine production.
D) increased blood volume.
E) cells enlarged with fluid.
Dan has been lost in the desert for two days with very little water. As a result, you would expect to observe is A) elevated ADH levels
When someone is lost in a desert with very little water, they are exposed to extreme dehydration. This can have a number of consequences on their body. First, their antidiuretic hormone (ADH) levels will be elevated. ADH is responsible for controlling the amount of water that is lost through urine, so when there is a lack of water, it will be produced in greater amounts.
This will lead to a decrease in the amount of urine produced. Additionally, the blood osmolarity will decrease due to the loss of electrolytes, which are essential for proper cell functioning. This will be accompanied by a decrease in the blood volume, because a decrease in electrolytes will cause cells to lose water, resulting in a decrease in cell volume.
Therefore, correct option is A.
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gene a exists in three forms at a site in the x chromosome: a1, a2, and a3. each form, or allele, has a different number of tandem repeats. the alleles are amplified with pcr and then run on a polyacrylamide gel for analysis. the gel shown is the dna fingerprint for two girls who have the same parents. what is the genotype of the mother? of the father?
This is a simplified explanation of the DNA fingerprinting process, and there may be additional factors to consider when analyzing a specific DNA fingerprint.
To determine the genotype of the mother and father based on DNA fingerprinting,
you need to follow these steps:
Identify the bandsDNA fingerprinting is based on the differences in the length of DNA fragments that result from cutting the DNA with restriction enzymes. The resulting fragments are separated by size using electrophoresis, which creates bands on the gel. Each band represents a fragment of a specific length.
Determine the allele sizeThe different alleles of a gene can have different numbers of tandem repeats, which will result in different fragment sizes. By comparing the size of the bands in the DNA fingerprint to a known set of alleles, you can determine the size of the alleles for each individual.
Determine the genotypeBased on the size of the alleles, you can determine the genotype of each individual. For example, if the alleles at a given gene locus are a1, a2, and a3, and one individual has alleles a1/a2 and the other has alleles a2/a3, you can determine the genotypes of both individuals.
Infer the parental genotypeFinally, you can infer the genotype of the parents based on the genotypes of their offspring.
For example, if two individuals have the same parents and one has the genotype a1/a2 and the other has the genotype a2/a3, you can infer that the mother is either a1/a2 or a2/a3, and the father is either a1/a2 or a2/a3.
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a genetic cross with two genes produces 400 offspring, and 20 of them have recombinant phenotypes. what is the recombination frequency for this cross? 5% 1% 50% 10% 20%
The recombination frequency for this cross is 5%. This is calculated by dividing the total number of offspring with recombinant phenotypes (20) by the total number of offspring produced (400). This value can be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the result by 100.
Recombination frequency is a measure of the degree to which different genes are associated with each other. It is calculated by taking the number of offspring with recombinant phenotypes and dividing it by the total number of offspring.
This is important because it allows researchers to determine how likely it is that two genes will be inherited together. In general, a higher recombination frequency indicates that two genes are more likely to be inherited separately, while a lower frequency indicates that the two genes are more likely to be inherited together.
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what else is reacted during citrate > isocitrate?
In the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle), the conversion of citrate to isocitrate is an important step. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme aconitase and involves a two-step process.
First, citrate undergoes a dehydration reaction, losing a water molecule to form cis-aconitate. Then, a hydration reaction occurs, adding a water molecule back to cis-aconitate, which results in the formation of isocitrate.
During this conversion, the hydroxyl group (-OH) and the hydrogen atom (H) in citrate are rearranged. This rearrangement allows isocitrate to proceed to the next step in the citric acid cycle, where it is oxidized by isocitrate dehydrogenase. This step generates NADH and [tex]CO_{2}[/tex], which are essential for cellular energy production and other metabolic processes.
In summary, the reaction of citrate to isocitrate in the citric acid cycle involves the enzyme aconitase, a dehydration and hydration reaction, and the rearrangement of a hydroxyl group and a hydrogen atom. This conversion is crucial for the cycle to continue and produce energy for the cell.
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what is the main neurotransmitter used by preganglionic neurons in the autonomic nervous system?
The main neurotransmitter used by preganglionic neurons in the autonomic nervous system is acetylcholine (ACh).
Preganglionic neurons are the first set of neurons in the autonomic nervous system, and they originate in the spinal cord or brainstem and synapse onto ganglionic neurons in the autonomic ganglia. At these synapses, preganglionic neurons release ACh, which binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the postganglionic neurons.
This causes a depolarization of the postganglionic neuron and the subsequent release of either ACh or another neurotransmitter, such as norepinephrine or epinephrine, depending on the specific division of the autonomic nervous system involved.
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what are protein hormones generally primary or secondary messengers?
Answer:
Protein hormones are generally primary messengers. Primary messengers are the hormones that directly bind to specific receptors on the cell membrane, leading to the activation of intracellular signaling pathways. In contrast, secondary messengers are small molecules that are generated inside the cell in response to the binding of primary messengers to their receptors. These secondary messengers then activate downstream signaling pathways.
Protein hormones, such as insulin and growth hormone, are typically large molecules that cannot cross the cell membrane. Therefore, they bind to specific receptors on the surface of the cell, which triggers intracellular signaling pathways that ultimately lead to the biological response. As such, protein hormones act as primary messengers.
Explanation:
what part of the thalamus does auditory information go through?
Auditory information goes through the medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) of the thalamus. The MGN is one of several nuclei that make up the thalamus and is specifically responsible for processing auditory information.
When it comes to auditory information, this sensory input travels through a specific region of the thalamus known as the medial geniculate nucleus (MGN).
The MGN is located in the posterior portion of the thalamus, specifically within the thalamic relay nuclei. It is responsible for processing auditory information from the inferior colliculus in the midbrain and directing it to the primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobe.
Once auditory information reaches the MGN, it undergoes further processing before being transmitted to the auditory cortex. This processing includes refining the timing and frequency characteristics of sound waves to ensure that the auditory cortex receives accurate and useful information.
Overall, the medial geniculate nucleus is a crucial component of the auditory pathway in the brain, playing a key role in directing sensory input to the appropriate areas for further processing and analysis.
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What type of bond holds the complementary base pairs together in a double helix of DNA?A. Covalent bondsB. Peptide bondsC. Glycosidic bondsD. Hydrogen bonds
Answer:
D. hydrogen bonds
Explanation:
The two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between pairs of bases: adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine pairs with guanine.
includes brain, spinal cord, nerves that transmit electrical messages throughout the body is known as____
includes brain, spinal cord, nerves that transmit electrical messages throughout the body is known as nervous system
Central nervous system (CNS) is made up of brain and spinal cord. The brain is responsible for controlling how we think, learn, move, and feel, and is also responsible for regulating many of the body's physiological processes. The spinal cord carries messages back and forth between the brain and the nerves that run throughout the body, serving as a conduit for sensory and motor information.
Together, the brain and spinal cord are responsible for the coordination and integration of all bodily functions, and play a critical role in maintaining homeostasis, or the balance of the body's internal environment. The CNS is also responsible for many higher-order functions, such as memory, perception, and consciousness.
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49. the arboreal hypothesis of primate origins emphasizes primates an) grasping hands and feet. b) fruit-eating tendency. c) long legs compared to arms. d) acute sense of smell.
The arboreal hypothesis of primate origins emphasizes primates' grasping hands and feet. The answer is a)
The arboreal hypothesis is a widely accepted theory that suggests that primates evolved from tree-dwelling mammals. One of the key adaptations that allowed for this transition was the development of grasping hands and feet, which enabled primates to move through the trees more easily.
These grasping appendages allowed for a greater range of movement and provided the ability to grasp onto branches and tree trunks, allowing for a more secure and efficient method of locomotion.
Additionally, the arboreal hypothesis also emphasizes the importance of stereoscopic vision, which allowed for accurate depth perception and aided in the ability to navigate through a complex, 3D environment.
Other characteristics associated with the arboreal hypothesis include a fruit-eating tendency, long arms compared to legs, and an acute sense of touch, which would aid in grasping onto branches and navigating through the trees.
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How do redox reactions result in the gaining of energy from glucose?
Redox reactions result in the gaining of energy from glucose through a process called cellular respiration. In this process, glucose (C6H12O6) is oxidized and oxygen (O2) is reduced, forming carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). The transfer of electrons during this reaction releases energy stored in glucose, which can be used by cells.
Step 1: Glycolysis - Glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate, releasing some energy and transferring electrons to NAD+ to form NADH.
Step 2: Pyruvate decarboxylation - Pyruvate is converted into Acetyl-CoA, releasing CO2 and transferring more electrons to NAD+ to form NADH.
Step 3: Citric acid cycle - Acetyl-CoA enters the cycle, releasing CO2, and transferring electrons to NAD+ and FAD, forming NADH and FADH2.
Step 4: Electron transport chain - NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to the chain, which generates a proton gradient, driving ATP synthesis and releasing energy.
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